This presidential race will be fought over competing understandings of ‘freedom’ | Eric Foner

The recently concluded Democratic national convention marked a sharp turn in US political rhetoric. "Freedom, where are you?" Beyoncé sang in the video that opened the gathering. Her song proved to be a fitting introduction to the days that followed. Joe Biden had made saving democracy from the threat of Maga authoritarianism the centerpiece of his ill-fated campaign for re-election. The keynote of Kamala Harris's convention, invoked by nearly every speaker, was "freedom".

Nearly a century ago, in the wake of the Great Depression, Franklin Delano Roosevelt linked freedom to economic security for ordinary Americans - "freedom from want" was one of the four freedoms summarizing the country's aims in the second world war. This definition of freedom, a product of the New Deal, assumed an active role for the federal government. But since the 1980s, when Ronald Reagan in effect redefined freedom as limited government, low taxes and unregulated economic enterprise, Democrats have pretty much ceded the word to their opponents. Now they want it back.

Yet freedom is neither a fixed idea nor an evolutionary progress toward a predetermined goal. The history of US freedom is a tale of debates and struggles. Often, battles for control of the idea illustrate the contrast between "negative" and "positive" meanings of freedom, a dichotomy elaborated by Sir Isaiah Berlin in an influential essay in 1958. Negative liberty defines freedom as the absence of outside restraints on individual action. Positive liberty is a form of empowerment - the ability to set and fulfill one's goals. As the contrast between FDR and Reagan illustrates, the first sees government as a threat to freedom and the second as removing barriers to its enjoyment, often by government intervention.

The Democratic convention built upon this history. Positive and negative freedom co-existed and reinforced one another. The frequent calls for "reproductive freedom" - the right to make intimate decisions free of governmental interference (or as vice-presidential nominee Tim Walz put it, the principle of "mind your own damn business") - embraced and expanded the idea of negative freedom. Never before has the 60s slogan "the personal is political" found such powerful expression at a party convention.

Positive freedom also made its appearance, notably in Bernie Sanders' litany of future government action against the likes of big oil and big pharma in the name of combating economic inequality and "corporate greed". Walz, echoing FDR, commented that people who lack access to affordable housing and healthcare are not truly free.

There is another crucial element to the ongoing debate about freedom: who is entitled to enjoy it. When the constitution was ratified, the United States was home to half a million enslaved African Americans. The first laws defining how immigrants could become citizens, enacted in the 1790s, limited the process to "white" persons. It took more than half a century for slavery to be eradicated and for Black persons, for a brief period during the era of Reconstruction that followed the civil war, to be incorporated into the body politic.

This history exemplifies what the historian Tyler Stovall, in a recent book, calls "White Freedom". Fast forward to the civil rights revolution of the 1960s. With its freedom rides, freedom songs and insistent cry "freedom now", that revolution linked freedom with equality regardless of race or national origin. What is now remembered simply as "the movement" did more to redefine the meaning of freedom than any other development of the last century. Its fruits were visible every night in the Democratic convention's remarkably diverse composition.

Throughout our history, freedom has been defined, in large measure, by its limits. This is how the Confederacy was able to claim to be fighting for liberty. The historian Jefferson Cowie, whose book Freedom's Dominion won the Pulitzer prize for history in 2023, argues that negative freedom, expressed as opposition to federal intervention in local affairs, has often boiled down to little more than the determination of local elites to exercise political and economic power over subordinate groups without outside interference. Civil rights were condemned as a threat to white people's liberty (the freedom, for example, to choose who is allowed to live in one's neighborhood). The vaunted independence of men depended on limiting the freedom of women.

With the party conventions over, the campaign now becomes, in part, a contest to define the meaning of freedom. Historical precedents exist for such a battle. In 1936, the New York Times observed that the fight for possession of "the ideal of freedom" was the central issue of that year's presidential campaign. Three decades later, the journalist Theodore White noted that freedom was the "dominant word" of both civil rights demonstrators and supporters of the conservative Republican candidate Barry Goldwater, but they meant entirely different things by it. The United States, he concluded, sorely needed "a commonly-agreed-on concept of freedom".

Freedom is often used to mobilize support in wartime. No recent president employed it for this purpose more egregiously than George W Bush, who made freedom an all-purpose justification for the invasion of Iraq. In his first inaugural address, Bush used the words "freedom", "free" or "liberty" seven times. In his second, a 10-minute speech delivered after the invasion, they appeared no fewer than 49 times.

Bush's egregious distortion of the ideal of freedom seemed to discourage his successors from using the word at all. Barack Obama preferred the language of community and personal responsibility. Nor has freedom been a major theme of Donald Trump, who prefers to speak of raw military and economic power. But Trump's long campaign to deny that Obama is a US citizen, and his calls for the immense deportation of undocumented immigrants, resonate with those who seek to redraw freedom's boundaries along racial and nativist lines.

The Democratic convention appears to have guaranteed that the 2024 election will be a contest over the meaning of freedom. Whatever the result, it will likely define American freedom for years to come.